Racial Segregation In US Forces

Discussion in 'US Units' started by adamcotton, Nov 23, 2005.

  1. adamcotton

    adamcotton Senior Member

    I saw a documentary on the “Tuskegee Airmen” recently and shortly thereafter found myself asking: just how racist was the average white American fighting man in his attitude toward black troops, most of whom were assigned menial tasks as cooks or cleaners. What was the wider significance of segregation within the US forces, and how deep did it run?

    In the movie “Windtalkers”, Navajo Indians are shown fighting alongside white US Marines, but many of the latter are portrayed as bigoted in their attitude toward the codetalkers (so the racism would seem to have extended to other races, but without being quite as insitutionalised as it was toward African Americans).

    Ex GI officer Paul Fussell, in his book “The Boys Crusade”, observes that many British people – for whom the concept of racial segregation was in any case anathema – often found the black GIs more polite and charming than their white colleagues. Indeed, one woman is quoted as saying, “I love the Yanks. It’s just a pity they brought those white fellas with them!”.

    Lest our American friends across the pond accuse me of anti-Americanism, please rest assured I am certainly NOT anti-American. I am interested in this purely from a socio-political viewpoint and the consequences of the segregationist policies of the US armed forces in WW2.

    Comments please…
     
  2. spidge

    spidge RAAF RESEARCHER

  3. Kiwiwriter

    Kiwiwriter Very Senior Member

    It's a huge, huge, huge, subject.

    The best place to start is with the US Army's Official History volume, "The Employment of Negro Troops," written in 1965 by Prof. Ulysses G. Lee, and reprinted in paperback for the 50th anniversary of World War II.

    It is on the web at the US Army's Center for Military History website. A fascinating subject.

    The big problem was that many of the black troops suffered from the Jim Crow laws...they were uneducated and suffered from a variety of diseases associated with poverty. Because of their lack of literacy and poor health as well as prevailing racism and prejudice, they were seen as discipline problems and unworthy of combat. The 93rd Division, which held a great record from World War I, was broken up into service units in the Pacific. The 92nd, which also held a great record, was poorly led, and re-organized several times, to include a converted AA regiment and the 442nd Nisei Regiment. Re-organized, it fought better. But it suffered the indignity of being defeated by the Italian Monte Rosa Division, of Mussolini's puppet Italian Social Republic.

    However, many other all-black outfits fought well, besides the legendary Tuskegee Airmen. These folks, who were W.E.B. DuBois's "Talented 10th," were well-trained and disciplined. Another outfit, the 741st Tank Battalion, did an outstanding job in Patton's Third Army, as did several all-black artillery outfits, one of which defended Bastogne.

    One of the greatest African-American contributions to WW2 was the "Red Ball Express," made of all-black quartermaster truck companies, which delivered supplies from ports and railheads to the front. African-Americans also served in a lot of construction engineer and port stevedore units, which led to the "Port Chicago Mutiny," with black men refusing to work after an explosion claimed the lives of hundreds of their buddies in unsafe conditions -- not in combat, mind you, but in California. These jobs were vital to the war effort.

    I had the good fortune to meet some of the Red Ball crews at a veterans' event, and they waxed nostalgic over my reprints of wartime newspapers -- they liked the ads, three-piece furniture sets for $750 -- but turned somber at the photographs of dead GIs in the Normandy hedgerows. "I saw plenty of that," one said.
     
  4. adamcotton

    adamcotton Senior Member

    Thanks for that. Fascinating websites...
     
  5. Kyt

    Kyt Very Senior Member

    A belated response:

    There are some great pictures of African-American servicemen during WW2 (and a history of the first A-M in the US Marines):

    http://www.mpma28.com/page/page/2271263.htm

    A two fantastic books:

    "Fighting for America: Black Soldiers - The Unsung Heroes of World War II"
    Christopher Paul Moore
    Presidio Press: 2006
    (this is probably the best single book on this subject with an excellent appendix)

    "Blood For Dignity: The Story of the First Integrated Combat Unit in the US Army"
    David P Colley
    St Martin's Press: 2003

    "The Afro-American and the Second World War"
    Neil A. Wynn
    Paul Elek: 1976
    (This book looks at the broader analysis in the armed forces and the US home front)

    And I think the Tuskegee Airmen book has already been mentioned.
     
  6. jacobtowne

    jacobtowne Senior Member

    Thanks Kyt. That's a fine website. I had no idea that black Marines fought at Saipan, or anywhere else for that matter.

    JT
     
  7. Kyt

    Kyt Very Senior Member

  8. lancesergeant

    lancesergeant Senior Member

    I saw today on a website a rememerance service in Georgia US, where the organisers had the bright idea of seperating up those present by race. There are still some donkey's knocking about!
     
  9. Kyt

    Kyt Very Senior Member

    I saw today on a website a rememerance service in Georgia US, where the organisers had the bright idea of seperating up those present by race. There are still some donkey's knocking about!

    Yes. Men of many races, creeds and nations fought and died for freedom, democracy and equality - it's such a shame that this isn't always appreciated by today's politicians. It also makes you wonder why so many rushed out to join-up when they were treated so badly.
     
  10. jamesicus

    jamesicus Senior Member

    .......... I saw a documentary on the “Tuskegee Airmen” recently and shortly thereafter found myself asking: just how racist was the average white American fighting man in his attitude toward black troops, most of whom were assigned menial tasks as cooks or cleaners ...........
    .......... It's a huge, huge, huge, subject ..........
    I can offer a unique perspective to some aspects of this subject for I was born and grew up in Lancashire, England (and survived WW2 on the British Homefront) then emigrated to the USA following the War and subsequently served a twenty two year career in the United States Air Force (including the Korean and Vietnam wars - not in country - no combat).

    My own childhood contact with black people was, I believe, typical of the experiences of many children in small town pre-ww2 Britain: not very much. In my case it was due to my hometown of Burnley employing the great West Indies fast bowler, Emmanuel (Manny) Martindale as our cricket professional (several Lancashire League clubs did the same -- two outstanding examples were the mercurial West Indies all-rounder, "Leary" [later Lord] Constantine and George Headley -- the "black Bradman").

    I detail the organization and function of the Lancashire League before, during and after WW2 in my Web site "A great Decade of Cricket: 1938-1948"

    http://jp29.org/adcdr.htm

    The Martindale family lived just four houses away from my grandpa and grandma Pickering in Burnley and not far from our house. They had two sons, Fred and Colin, who used to be part of our group that played informal cricket after school. Fred (my friend who was one year younger than me) was a good fast bowler and Colin (two years younger than Fred) was a graceful batsman. I was excited to go to their house when I visited my grandparents in case Mr. Martindale was there. He seldom was, but Mrs. (Gillian) Martindale and the children (including four girls -- Carol, Yvonne, Norma, and Pamela) usually were. Mr. Martindale was a quiet man of great dignity but he was also very pleasant and spoke kindly to me. I maintain contact with Fred's daughters to this day -- I tell the full story on my Web page http://jp29.org/adcmm.htm -- please note the outstanding achievements of Leah Martindale (Freds's youngest daughter) in both Olympic/Collegiate sports and Academia.

    Some overseas pre-war club cricket professionals remained in England during the war. Learie Constantine and Manny Martindale devoted much of their time and energies in supporting local war time cricket and making sure West Indies servicemen in WW2 Britain were well received and cared for.

    During WW2 the US armed forces were racially segregated and many of the enlisted components suffered some of the indignities outlined in previous posts. After D-Day in Europe especially, black soldiers participated in combat and in general served efficiently with great bravery and honor. From time to time I will post photographs here featuring black US WW2 soldiers -- here is such a one:

    http://jp29.org/carbine53s.JPG
    In France, 1944

    The United States military services became fully racially integrated shortly after WW2. The USAF became a separate branch in 1948 and we faced the formidable tasks of establishing our own unique identity, espirit, traditions -- and uniforms. Racial integration was given the highest priority. My own experience was that we had far more problems establishing our service identity and new blue uniforms (versus the old "brown shoe" Air Corps) than we did implementing racial equality. Of course, there were hiccups along the way and some unfortunate (but isolated) racially insensitive incidents -- there will always be some bigots, and downright jerks, in all populations -- but they were quickly squashed and non-compliance with the USAF integration policy was not tolerated. Again, in my experience, Officers and NCOs wholeheartedly devoted themselves to insuring that the goal of unequivocal racial integration was achieved. In my USAF military career I served under many truly outstanding black Officers and alongside many equally outstanding black NCOs, many of whom became my close. All of the foregoing applies equally to numerous Latin American and Native American USAF comrades.

    At one point during my career I met a "Tuskegee Airman" -- Lt. Gen. (later four star General) Benjamin O. Davis jr. (his father, Brig. Gen. Benjamin O. Davis Sr. was the first black general officer in the US Army) who at the time was vice commander of Strike Command at MacDill AFB, Florida, while I was the Base Sergeant Major (1968/69). I had occasions to brief him on enlisted welfare and morale conditions. General Davis was an outstanding commander and leader of men who possessed tremendous personal magnetism.
     
  11. Owen

    Owen -- --- -.. MOD

  12. jamesicus

    jamesicus Senior Member

  13. Kyt

    Kyt Very Senior Member

    Racial integration was given the highest priority. My own experience was that we had far more problems establishing our service identity and new blue uniforms (versus the old "brown shoe" Air Corps) than we did implementing racial equality. Of course, there were hiccups along the way and some unfortunate (but isolated) racially insensitive incidents -- there will always be some bigots, and downright jerks, in all populations -- but they were quickly squashed and non-compliance with the USAF integration policy was not tolerated. Again, in my experience, Officers and NCOs wholeheartedly devoted themselves to insuring that the goal of unequivocal racial integration was achieved. In my long USAF military career I served under many truly outstanding black Officers and alongside many equally outstanding black NCOs, many of whom became my close brothers-in-arms and lifelong friends. All of the foregoing applies equally to numerous Latin American and Native American USAF comrades.

    Your experiences highlight a very important point - the fighting man doesn't care what colour their comrade is - as long as each covers the others back. Your comment reinforces that fact - thank you. In the book that I mentioned earlier on the first integrated combat unit, there are many anecdotes from white soldiers who readiliy admitted that they had been racist until they saw that black soldiers wre not only just as good as them, but were willing to provide and accept the mutual comradeship of a fighting unit.

    I served under a "Tuskegee Airman" -- Lt. Gen. (later four star General) Benjamin O. Davis who at the time was vice commander of Strike Command at MacDill AFB, Florida, while I was the Base Sergeant Major. I had many occasions to brief him on enlisted welfare and morale conditions and served on some of his committees. General Davis was an outstanding commander and leader of men who possessed tremendous personal magnetism.

    A remarkable man indeed. And it sounds like you are too. :salut:
     
  14. Kyt

    Kyt Very Senior Member

    I live very close to the scene of an infamous race-riot that occurred during the war - a fight bewteen African-American and white US troops. In fact I have talked to couple of people who remember it. Their recollections correspond with the official (but secret) report carried out by the British government - that the majority of the white Bristolians supported the African American GIs.
     
  15. jamesicus

    jamesicus Senior Member

  16. spidge

    spidge RAAF RESEARCHER

    At one point during my career I served under a "Tuskegee Airman" -- Lt. Gen. (later four star General) Benjamin O. Davis

    Consider what he had to go through at West Point! Any lesser focused individual would have quit!

    A short version of his career here: http://www.fatherryan.org/blackmilitary/davis_jr.htm

    Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.

    [​IMG]

    Benjamin O.Davis, Jr. was born in Washington, D.C., on December 18, 1912. In 1932 he began college at the West Point Military Academy. Davis believed his classmates would accept him based on the content of his character and not reject him because of his race. He was wrong. He was shunned for four years, meaning other cadets would only speak to him for official reasons. He had no roommate and took his meals in silence. Those who caused this shunning had hoped to drive Davis from the Academy, but their actions only made him more determined to succeed. He graduated thirty-fifth out of 276 in the Class of 1936. Upon Graduating, Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. became one of only two black line officers in the U.S. Army at the time--the other was his father. Initially assigned to the infantry, in July 1941 he joined 12 cadets in the first flying training program for blacks at Tuskegee, Alabama. In March of 1942 he received his wings after becoming the first black officer to solo an Army Air Corps aircraft. These Tuskegee graduates went on to form the 99th Pursuit Squadron, which entered World War II in June 1943 with Lieutenant Davis in command.
    After four months of flying P-40's in the Mediterranean Theater, Davis returned to the States, took command of the 332d Fighter Group, and deployed with his unit to Italy in January 1944. By summer the Group had transitioned to P-47s and began scoring their first kills. On June 9, 1944 Colonel Davis led 39 Thunderbolts escorting B-24s to targets at Munich, Germany. Near the target the 332d took on more than 100 German fighters, destroying five Me-109s and damaging another.
    For his leadership and bravery on this mission, Davis was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. Later, flying the distinctive 332d "Red Tail" P-51 Mustangs, Davis led the first Italy-based fighter group to escort bombers to Berlin, a distance of 1,600 miles. Approaching Berlin, they were attacked by 25 Me-262 jets, but the 332d downed three of the enemy fighters. Under Davis' command, the Group flew more than 15,000 sorties against the Luftwaffe, shot down 111 enemy aircraft, and destroyed another 150 on the ground, while losing only 66 of their own aircraft to all causes. Not one friendly bomber was lost to enemy aircraft during the Group's 200 escort missions. The unique success of this all-black outfit highlighted Colonel Davis' leadership, along with the courage and discipline of his airmen.
    Following the European War Davis returned to the States to command the 477th Composite Group and the 332d Fighter Wing. He again saw combat in 1953 when he assumed command of the 51st Fighter-Interceptor Wing and flew the F-86 in Korea. With his promotion to brigadier general, Davis became the first black to earn a star in the US Air Force.
    He retired as a lieutenant general in 1970, and served under President Nixon as Assistant Secretary of Transportation for Environment, Safety, and Consumer Affairs.
     
  17. spidge

    spidge RAAF RESEARCHER

    A huge selection of photographs by category African Americans in the services and also the first one to enlist in the marines.

    http://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/ww2-pictures/#usmc

    A couple to start for the marines:

    US Marine Corps 93. "Breaking a tradition of 167 years, the U.S. Marine Corps started enlisting Negroes on June 1, 1942. The first class of 1,200 Negro volunteers began their training 3 months later as members of the 51st Composite Defense Battalion at Montford Point, a section of the 200-square-mile Marine Base, Camp Lejeune, at New River, NC. The first Negro to enlist was Howard P. Perry shown here." N.d. Roger Smith. 208-NP-10KK-1. (african_americans_wwii_093.jpg)
    94. "The first Negro to be commissioned in the Marine Corps has his second lieutenant's bars pinned on by his wife. He is Frederick C. Branch of Charlotte, NC." November 1945. 127-N-500043. (african_americans_wwii_094.jpg)
     
  18. jamesicus

    jamesicus Senior Member

    .......... He retired as a lieutenant general in 1970, and served under President Nixon as Assistant Secretary of Transportation for Environment, Safety, and Consumer Affairs ..........
    On 9 December 1998 President Clinton nominated Lt. Gen. Davis for his fourth star which was approved by Congress and he thus became a full General in retirement. Under President Nixon he headed the US Air Marshal program and was tasked to develop a National Airport Security System and highway safety program in his position as Assistant Secretary of Transportation for Environment, Safety, and Consumer Affairs.
     
  19. jamesicus

    jamesicus Senior Member

    BTW, the first Black officer to achieve the rank of full (four star) General in the US military was another Tuskegee Airman -- Gen. Daniel "Chappie" James, USAF (in 1975). His story is beautifully told (accompanied by photographs) at:

    http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/djames.htm

    I never did serve under Gen. James during my career (I was transferred to Davis Monthan AFB, Arizona, in 1970 after he had already departed there), but several of my USAF comrades did and all commented on his dynamic leadership style and outstanding command abilities.
     
  20. Kyt

    Kyt Very Senior Member

Share This Page